dhokarena grammer
| From: | Campbell Nilsen <cactus95@...> |
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| Date: | Monday, March 31, 2008, 19:56 |
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Not complete...haven't even gotten to conditionals...
Also, the na
Not complete...haven't even gotten to conditionals...
Also, the name of the language had to be changed due to the fact that a certain root
had to be changed to the genitive.
Sorry.
Dhokirena
A textbook
Contents
Pronounciation………………………………………4
Nominative……………………………………………6
Genitive………………………………………………..6
Chapter One Vocabulary……………………………..6
Accusative…………………………………………….7
Dative………………………………………………….7
Present Indicative Active…………………………….7
Present Infinitive Active………………………………7
Chapter Two Vocabulary……………………………7
Instrumental……………………………………………8
Perfect Indicative Active………………………………8
Chapter Three Vocabulary…………………………….8
Present Subjunctive Active……………………………9
Perfect Subjunctive Active……………………………..9
Basic Use of the Subjunctive…………………………..9
Negation of the Verb……………………………………9
Prepositional……………………………………………9
Chapter Four Vocabulary………………………………9
Present Imperative Active…………………………….11
Perfect Imperative Active………………………………11
Prepositions of Circumstance………………………….11
Chapter Five Vocabulary…………………………………11
Adjectives…………………………………………………..12
Adverbs……………………………………………………12
Imperfect Indicative Active……………………………12
Chapter Six Vocabulary……………………………….12
Future Indicative Active………………………………..13
Sandhi Rules……………………………………………13
Chapter Seven Vocabulary……………………………13
Song Translation and Notes………………………….14
Third and Fourth Principle Parts……………….15
Pronunciation
I. Letters
LetterX-SAMPAEnglish equivalentIPA
a/a/Father; if last letter, strut.a
b/b/Ballb
c/c/No English equivalent; Hungarian “ty”.c
d/d/Dayd
e/e/Bedɛ
f/f/Fanf
g/g/Guppyg
h/h/Hath
i/i/Keepiː
j/Z/Visionʒ
k/k/Capk
l/l/Lapl
m/m/Mapm
n/n/Napn
o/o/Mopeo
p/p/Panp
r/r\/ OR /r/Ratɹ OR r
s/s/Sats
t/t/Tapt
u/u/Lootuː
v/v/Vanv
w/w/Wallw
x
/x/
No English equivalent; German “ch”.x
y/j/yamj
z/z/Zapz
II.Diphthongs:
Ai:tie;
Au:cow;
Ei: rake;
Eu: Greek “ευ”.
Ie-mitt.
Oe:German ö.
Oi: toy.
An apostrophe “’” seperating two vowels represents that they are to be pronounced seperately.
Stress falls on the penultimate syllable[when a word has 2 or more syllables] or the
only syllable[if it only has one.]
There are also consonental combonations.
If two consonants are not pronounced as a unit, an apostrophe seperates them.
Dh=this.
Jh=hungarian “gy”.
Lh=Castillian “ll”.
Ny=Castillian “ñ”
Ng=thing.
Sh=English “sh”.
Sy=Polish “ś”.
Th=thing.
Zh=Polish “ź”
Chapter 1
Nominative, Genitive
I. Nominative
The nominative is used for the subject of the sentence.
The nominative comes in the singular, dual and plural numbers.
We can categorize the endings thus:
SingularDualPlural
Nominative-a-eis-ei
II. Genitive
The genitive is used for possession.
Like the nominative, the genitive comes in the singular, dual and plural. It comes
after the noun it modifies.
SingularDualPlural
Genitive-i-eis-ai
You’ll notice that the nominative and genitive merge in the dual.
This is an annoying feature of the dual.
Since the dual is rarely used(especially in the spoken language), it has slowly
coalesced into the four forms we see today.
Note: There are no articles[a, an, the].
III. Vocabulary
Dhoka-man
Soeka-tree
Feula-woman
Cila-dog
Hena-cat
Kisala-father
Fiseula-mother
I do not include excercises at the end of the chapter, for three main reasons:
1. I don’t feel like writing them.
2. You can always look at the chapter for the endings and such you need. At that
point, it’s just a jigsaw puzzle(and with Dhokirena word order being free,
the jigsaw pieces go anywhere.)
3. It’s an invented language! Made by one person, and certainly not for
widespread communication. I’m not going to be around to scold you if you make
a mess of your word endings. And you will, partly because you will, but also
because I have a cynical view of human nature and intelligence.
Chapter 2
Accusative, Dative; Present Indicative and Infinitive Active of Thematic verbs.
I. The accusative case indicates a direct object.
Like all cases, it comes in the singular, dual and plural numbers.
The endings can be categorized thus:
SingularDualPlural.
Accusative-o-an-au
II. The dative case indicates an indirect object.
Here are the endings:
SingularDualPlural
Dative-es-ut-it
III. The present indicative active indicates that the subject does the action in
the present time with imperfect aspect.
The thematic verb has no dual number. A dual subject takes a plural verb.
The present indicative active is formed by adding the following endings to the
present stem[1st principle part]:
SingularDual/plural
1st person-as-at
2nd person-is-it
3rd person-es-et
It is easy to see a pattern in these endings.
Mind you, very few verb forms act this nicely…
IV. The present infinative active is an infinitive with imperfect aspect.
IN THE INFINITIVE, “TENSE” INDICATES ASPECT ONLY, NOT TIME!
The ending[the infinitive has no personal endings] is –a, added to the 1st principle part.
V. Vocabulary
Kina-to love, 4th PP kun-
Lhoika-to have, 4th PP loik-
Kaita-to be, 4th PP kaut-
Sala-son
Nira-daughter
Ta-I[nominative is used rarely]
Ba-you
Za-he, she, or it[gender is not differentiated.]
Ir-and[joins two clauses].
Chapter 3
Instrumental; Perfect Indicative and Infinitive Active
I. The instrumental case indicates that the noun is used to accomplish the
action, indicated in English by adding the preposition “with” or “by
means of”.
The endings are thus:
SingularDualPlural
Instrumental-u-os-is
II. The perfect indicative active indicates that the subject has completed the
action by the time of the present.
It takes the 2nd principle part, made by attaching the perfect active
augment[prefix a-] to the 1st princliple part, and adding the following
endings.
SingularPlural
1st person-i-ital
2nd person-am-asal
3rd person-ak-avas
III. The perfect infinitive active is an infinitive in the active voice with
completed aspect. It is translated as “to have…”
The ending is the ending –ai added to the 2nd principle part.
IV. Vocabulary
Paga-farmer
Zhaka-plow
Zhakita-to plow
Casya-field
Mita-to eat
Saba-soup[plural=bowls of soup]
Pata-spoon.
Chapter 4
Present and Perfect Subjunctive Active ; negation of verbs; Prepositional
I. Present Subjunctive Active
So far, all the verb forms you have seen were in the indicative. The present
subjunctive is translated “might…”. Like the infinitive, the subjunctive
has only the present and perfect tenses.
The present subjunctive active consists of the following endings tacked onto the
1st principle part.
SingularPlural
1st person-on-acak
2nd person-oet-akat
3rd person-ik-iras
II. The perfect subjunctive active consists of the following endings attached to
the 2nd principle part.
SingularPlural
1st person-un-arat
2nd person-ok-isan
3rd person-unat-alev
III. The subjunctive is often used in purpose clauses:
“I will do this in order that you might do that”
where the first clause is in the indicative and the second in the subjunctive.
It is also used as a subjunctive of the apodasis in conditionals where the verb
in the apodasis does not indicate certanity. We won’t get to that, though,
until we cover the apodasian and protasian moods of the verb.
IV. A verb-any verb-is negated by placing the particle mei before the verb.
V. The prepositional is the last of the cases.
It is used for the object of a preposition.
Here are the endings.
SingularDualPlural
Prepositional-oi-os-oit
VI. Vocabulary
Kisa-book
Rana-table
Mei-negates sentence.
Loesha-ship
Ngap’ha-sea
Bilha-to sail
Do-on
Rei-in
Al-near
Ho’a-in order that
Saiya-need
Lapasa-person
Lepasa-somebody.
Lipasa-anybody.
Ho’inya-to know
Isat-you know[interjection]
Teis!-No![interjection]
Pira-to help
Falapa-to fight
Resana-heaven.
Chapter 5
Present and Perfect Imperative Active; Prepositions of circumstance; questions
SIT DOWN AND DO WHAT I SAY!
Welcome to the wonderful world of the imperative.
We only need concern ourselves with 4 forms of the imperative here, but more are to come.
I. The present imperative active indicates imperfect aspect combined with, well, a command.
Add to the 1st prnciple part:
SingularPlural
Imperative[2nd person]-al-isat
II. The perfect imperative is rarer, indicating completed aspect. Attach the
present imperative endings to the 2nd principle.
Prepositions of circumstance[such as “why” and “how”] start a clause such as
“When I do this…”
EnglishDhokirena
WhenSan
HowLhany
WhyPar
How manySyap
How muchJhip
III. Questions
Add the prefix i- to a preposition of circumstance to ask a question such as “why?”
All questions have the particle ka ending the sentence.
IV. Vocabulary
Naka-to kill
Jhipa-to make
Canyala-to build
Kailha-house
Mil’ha-wine[plural=bottles of wine]
Shoera-beer
Datisa-butter
Mo’ira-bread
Nyata-to spread, cover
Haspa-knife
Chapter 6
Adjectives and Adverbs; Imperfect Indicative Active
I. Adjectives, as you learned in elementery school, modify a noun.
They are formed in this way:
1. Attach a prefix. The base adjective takes the prefix a-. The comparative takes
the prefix i-. The superlative takes u-.
To form a predicate adjective, “I am happy,” you need to remove the basic
ending[see below] and add the ending –ako. Even better, this –o is just an
accusative and can be changed. And it isn’t *kaitas atirako; it’s lhoikas
atirako: literally, I have evilness.
2.To this one adds the ending of the noun the adjective modifies.
II. Adverbs do not decline at all. Simply take away the ending to form an adverb.
III. The imperfect tense indicates (obviously) imperfect aspect in past tense.
To form the imperfect indicative active, add to the 1st principle part these endings:
SingularPlural
1st person-adh-im
2nd person-ith-ash
3rd person-ol-oit
And that’s it.
IV. Vocabulary
Adhapa-good
Adhap-well
Atira-bad, evil
Atir-evilly
Asina-large
Asin-largely
Avira-small
Paideusa-to teach, educate
CHAPTER 7
Future Indicative Active ; Sandhi rules
I. Future Indicative Active- add the following endings to the1st principle part.
It signifies active voice, future time and imperfect aspect.
SingularPlural
1st-akat-aran
2nd-iban-itar
3rd-esal’ha-edan
II. Sandhi rules govern how consonants change in combination.
There are 2 rules:
When putting two words in combonation, remove the ending from all but the last root
and put them together. Between each root put a hyphen. If, between roots you
have:
1. A nasal and then a plosive at different places of articulation: Change the
nasal so the two places of articulation are the same. For example, the word for
cat is “hena”, and for dog “cila.” Remember that TV show “Catdog”?
Well, to translate, remove the ending from “hena” and put them together,
making *hen-cila. But wait, we have to change the nasal, making
”Heny-cila”. Really quite simple.
2. A fricative and a plosive in that order: If the plosive is palatal, make the
fricative palatal. If the plosive is voiced/unvoiced and the fricative is the
oppisite, change the fricative.
III. Vocabulary
Cana-grape
Parita-vine
Dusa-to hide.
Note: Dusa + a dative doesn’t mean to hide to or for the dative; it means to hide
from the dative.
Marinya-to hear
Vai-from.
Jhiratisa-to go crazy
Pad-soon
Dhanasa-honey[term of romantic affection]
Gau-that[He said that…]
Bar’ha-to say
Kyau(+ subjunctive)-should…
Tapauna-to cry, to weep
Tapauta-tear
Ni-but
Asada-this, these[decline like an adjective]
Jida-to hold, to keep
Da+ [indicative] to cause to
Mana-to die
Thana-to lose
Dauna+noun=another…
O, marinyadh zo vai cam-paritoi.
Ir, jhiratisakat pad.
Dhanasa, Dhanasa !
Bar’hadh gau marinyadh zo vai cam-paritoi.
Ho’inyas gau dhoka mei kyau tapaunik,
Ni mei jidas asadau tapatau.
Thana bo da manakat.
Kyau abar’hok tes gau kines dauna dhoko.
Ni marinyadh zo vai cam-paritoi.
Ir, jhiratisakat pad
O, marinyadh zo vai cam-paritoi.
Ir, jhiratisakat pad.
Dhanasa, Dhanasa !..
-Marvin Gaye, « Marinyadh zo vai camparitoi ».
By now, you may have translated this.
And yes, this is my favorite songs. But the fact is that the grammar required
doesn’t need you to look up trick forms from obscure fringes of the language.
You should probably note that “Honey, Honey!” is translated in the nominative,
not the vocative. The vocative existed in Old Dhokirena and Nardhena, its
purest descendant(Dhokirena is full of loanwords, as Dhokibaita is a major
trading power and the language has been simplified by foreign merchants). The
other two dead noun cases were the comitative, and the postpositional, owing
its existence to the fact that certain now-prepositions went after the noun and
the noun needed a special case to handle it. Nardhena still preserves this odd
system of apositions, and given an aposition there is no systematic way to know
where it goes. It must be learned by rote. After all apositions went pre-, the
postpositional [and the comitative, too] slid into the prepositional. Aren’t
you glad?
Chapter 8
Present, Perfect, Imperfect and Future potential active
The potential mood is scary.
Maybe it’s because it’s as large as the indicative.
Maybe, and this is most likely, it’s because we’re hitting 24 different forms.
In one chapter, too.
Oh, and the potential mood [like the optative] takes different principle parts
from the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. It is translated as
“can…”
”be able to…”
Buckle up, then. It’s going to be a wild ride.
I. 3rd and 4th Principle Parts
The third principle part is formed easily: through reduplication. The first
consonant is doubled, and an –a- is put between them. Note: If you have taken
Greek, you might find the way I form my principle parts oddly familiar. It
ain’t a coincidence. Kaita, akaitai, kakaitan; paideuw, epaideusa,
pepaideuka.
Now, the 4th principle part, I’m afraid, is formed differently for each verb.
Usually it is formed from a vowel mutation within the root, but not always.
Sometimes there is a consonant mutation, especially with the. Bottom line:
memorize. I know I am hearing groans at the back of the class, but this is just
how the language works. That is what the 4th P.P: means in the vocab listings
of previous verbs.
II. Present Potential Active-3rd principle part +:
SingularPlural
1st-an-ar
2nd-oki-is
3rd-ap-uth
"Define 'cynical'."-M. Mudd
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